Chair of Classical Philology, TU

The aim of the present study is to provide a comprehensive description of ancient iambic trimeter. The description distinguishes between the metrical, rhythmical and prosodic levels. Unlike earlier studies where metrical and rhythmical features are observed without distinction, here the analysis is based on the principle of generative metrics which discerns deep structure from surface structures, the latter being the realization of the deep structure in the corresponding poetical practice. The features of deep structure will be treated in the analysis of metre, while the analysis of surface structures belongs to the area of rhythmics.

In addition to that, the study includes two excurses to the field of verse semantics, comprising both the semantics of metre and rhythm. Thus, the first chapter of verse semantics aims to analyse and compare the semantical halo of the major Greek verse metres. In the second chapter, the formal features, above all the rhythmical structure of characters’s utterances will be compared, with special attention paid to Electra, Orestes, Clytaemnestra and chorus, i.e. to personages or groups of persons who occur in all the observed tragedies.

The material for the research comprises the iambic trimeter of Greek lyrics, tragedy and comedy, the archaic and Hellenistic choliambus, the early Roman senarius and the trimeter of late Roman tragedy. The study is organized according to the principle ‘from the general to the particular’: the first chapter encompasses prosody and versification systems, where in addition to the analysis of the versification systems of iambic trimeter in Greek and Latin poetry, the entire Greek and Latin verse is systematized. The metrical and rhythmical analysis focuses on the evolution of the ancient iambic trimeter from its earliest form – Greek lyric trimeters to the late Latin tragical trimeter. The chapter devoted to the semantics of metre treats one period in the development of Greek trimeter (in comparison with the hexameter and choliambus as metres of approximately the same period), while the analysis of the semantics of rhythm encompasses only three Greek tragedies with a similar plot.

In the study different methods are combined: for the metrical description the generative method has been used, for the rhythmical analysis the comparative-statistical method and for the analysis of semantics the comparative-statistical method has been integrated with structural-semiotic principles.

The main interest lies in the following problems.

1. Versification systems in Greek and Latin poetry. Proceeding from the prosodic analysis of the Greek and Latin language it can be stated that Greek belongs typologically among the mora-counting languages and thus provides possibilities for the emergence of

a) purely quantitative verse where structure is determined solely by the number of moras;
b) purely syllabic verse where only the number of syllables is relevant;
c) quantitative-syllabic verse where not only the number of moras is relevant, but to a certain extent also the syllabic distribution of quantities;
d) syllabic-quantitative verse, where the number of syllables is fixed and the quantity is subject to the syllabics;
e) free verse where the element of verse structure is a prosodic phrase.

Greek poetry did not make use of purely quantitative or purely syllabic verse, but it did use the syllabic-quantitative versification systems (the Aeolian tradition) and quantitative-syllabic versification systems (the Ionian tradition). When the melodic accent was replaced with the dynamic one and the distinction of quantities disappeared, the purely syllabic versification system was developed in the Byzantine poetry, which could also have some syllabic-accentual forms.

The Latin language, on the other hand, has a number of features, which characterize it as a stress-counting language. Since at the same time there also exists the opposition of short and long syllables, there are preconditions for the syllabic, accentual and quantitative principle, as well as for the combinations of these. The Roman literary heritage shows examples of purely accentual (i.e. the Saturnian) verse, as well as syllabic-quantitative, quantitative-syllabic, and several other combinatory versification systems. In the Middle Ages, also purely accentual and accentual-syllabic forms evolved.

2. The description of the deep structure of iambic trimeter. In the present study the correspondence rules and the prosodic rules will be formulated for each separate form. Attention will be paid mostly to the features with metrical relevance.

The deep structure of Greek iambic trimeter could be presented as follows (A and B mark different positions, F verse feet, D dipodies and V verse line):

&&&AB&AB&&AB&AB&&AB&AB&&&Þ&&&F&F&&F&F&&F&F&&&Þ&&D&D&D&&Þ&V&

In the case of Latin trimeter we must distinguish between two versions. The first of them – the senarius of comedy – has lost the dipodic structure of its origin; the elementary symmetrical units of senarius are verse feet:

&&AB&AB&AB&AB&AB&AB&&Þ&&F&F&F&F&F&F&&Þ&V&

On the other hand, in Seneca’s trimeter the dipodic structure is re-established and the deep structure is once again close to the Greek origin.

The realization of the scheme proceeds from certain correspondence rules: there are fewer rules in the case of archaic trimeter, since both the syllabic and the quantitative structures are quite strict, but during the subsequent evolution of trimeter new correspondence rules become rooted and realizations become more liberated. All in all, ten correspondence rules and six prosodic rules are distinguished.

It appears that although the deep structure of ancient iambic trimeter manifests perfect translational symmetry on all its hierarchical levels, its surface structures, on the other hand, strive to break this symmetry. Thus, the beginning of verse is never the same as its central part, and the end is regulated by completely different correspondence rules. This characterizes the syllabic rules (e.g., in Roman senarius the first foot can have 2-4 syllables, while the sixth is always disyllabic), as well as the quantitative rules (e.g., allowing anapaestical structures only in a few determined positions) and accentual rules (cf. the accented central part of the Roman senarius as opposed to its quantitative ending).

3. The analysis of the rhythmical development: the realization of the elements of deep structure by the use of correspondence rules is observed. The following topics are considered:

a) quantitative-syllabic variations (in the case of Latin trimeter also the accentual level has been added) by positions and verse feet, and in addition, the rhythmical forms of verse lines in general;
b) the relationship between word-ends and metrical boundaries or delimitators;
c) secondary rhythms which become manifest as statistical regularities in larger sections of texts.

From the archaic Greek trimeter to the trimeter of the late Latin tragedy the rhythmical evolution of iambic trimeter demonstrates certain universal features which are especially characteristic to the verse of MS² type (a metrical structure with the basic alphabet of two symbols, i.e. deep structure consisting of two elements).

The metrical analysis of trimeter showed that different parts of verse are realized according to different correspondence rules. The results of this become especially conspicuous in the rhythmical structure of verse: there are considerable rhythmical differences between the first and the second half of verse. Thus, the beginning of verse is more liberated, more varying, less stable, while its end is steady, constant, strict – the signs of such regularities can be noticed already in the archaic Greek trimeter, but it becomes especially apparent in the trimeter of comedy.

The second feature, which is also universal, is the tendency to dissimilation. In general, the first and the last half of verse become dissimilar, but rhythmical oppositions emerge also on the dipodical level or between verse feet.

The deep structure of iambic trimeter is realized differently in Greek and Latin poetry. The principal differences result already from the specifics of the prosodic systems of the given languages, but certain peculiarities appear also in rhythmics. The rhythm of Greek iambic trimeter depends on the quantitative-syllabic variations. The general tendency, which can be seen already in the early lyrical iambi and which deepens in the trimeter of tragedy and especially comedy, is the syllabic freedom in the beginning of verse and the permanence of the last dipody. In the Latin trimeter, the versification is constituted also by the agency of word-accents – in addition to the syllabic and quantitative principles. The disposition of accents is governed by other regularities than the syllabic structure: the function of accents is to compensate for the realization of metre where the quantitative-syllabic rules are the most liberated and, thus, the accentual rules are the most rigorous in the middle of verse. In Seneca’s case, word-accents have not just rhythmical, but even metrical relevance in the middle of verse.

The disposition of word-ends follows a rather uniform pattern throughout the rhythmical evolution of iambic trimeter. Accordingly, word-ends in the middle of verse occur preferably after A positions and in the last dipody more often after B positions. Resulting from the preference for syntagmatic boundaries after A3 and A4 and avoidance of them after B3, verse lines tend to be separated into two unequal parts by rhythmical caesurae.

Secondary rhythmics is determined by the tendency towards dissimilation. Therefore, the secondary rhythm of the trimeter of Aristophanes and Menander’s later period can be illustrated by the following pattern (1 marks a more variable foot and 0 a more rarely resolved foot): 1/1/0/1/0/0, where the first dipody is the freest, the third foot is, in contrast, stricter, and the fourth is again freer. As for the earlier comedy by Menander (i.e. "The Peevish Fellow") and the tragic trimeter, then here the most variable are the first and the third foot: 1/0/1/0/0/0. In the case of Seneca’s trimeter such regressive alternation is even more evident: 1/0/1/0/1/0 (here the first, third and fifth foot are contrasted with the second, fourth and sixth foot with fewer occurrences of resolutions. Secondary rhythmics in the senarius of Plautus can be characterized with the following scheme: 1/1/0/0/0/0. However, in this case we are not dealing with the direct opposition between the first dipody and the rest of the verse, since the decrease of resolutions towards the verse end is gradual.

4. Verse metre and its semantic colorations and functions in the earlier Ionian tradition, with iambic trimeter being treated in comparison with the early hexameter and choliambus. In the present study three different levels of semantic structure are taken into consideration: the occurrences of elementary themes and motifs, the tropological level and modality. Proceeding from the statistical data, the meanings and semiotic functions of verse metres are analysed.

The results of the analysis reveal that the observed verse metres are associated with quite specific semantic colorations.

Iambic trimeter focuses on themes related to human being, while the topic of gods occurs more rarely. The social thematics is relevant in Solon’s poetry; however, the latter does not show motifs of war which are present in the analysed section of Homer’s poetry.

As for the tropological structure, then in the case of iambi there are fewer epithets than in hexametrical or choliambic poetry, but at the same time there are considerably more metaphors (especially in Semonides). The distinctive feature of Archoilochos is that the share of similes is rather big.

There are no significant variations of modality in the iambic trimeter: it is mostly neutral (63%), but rather often also negative (18%). Other possibilities have been realized quite seldom.

In the choliambi by Hipponax the themes related to human beings are also quite common, but they have specific colorations: here, the motifs associated with the lower styles prevail, e.g., pertaining, among others, to the sphere of hygiene or functional states of man; there occur also threats, swearing, condemnations, taunts, and so forth. The theme of gods is important as well, but this also is carried out in a rather specific manner: it occurs mostly in direct addressing or prayers, and the most important gods are Hermes and Pluto.

The main tropes in choliambi are epithet and metonymy (the latter appears here more than in any other analysed author); similes, metaphors and paraphrases can be found as well. The modality is slightly different from that of the iambic trimeter: it is neutral only in 56% of the analysed verses; respectively, the imperative and conditional modalities are more frequent.

In hexameters, the themes related to society prevail; above all, the themes of war and governing the state. Also there emerges the theme of human qualities and states of minds, with the domination of negative states like anger, concern, fear, and so forth. Themes related to gods are relevant as well; here we are dealing mostly with gods belonging to the classical Greek pantheon like Hephaestus, Zeus, Athena.

The most prevalent tropes in hexameters are epithet, metaphor and metonymy; the tropological structure of Homeric verses is the richest among the examined material. The modality of hexameters is, schematically, rather similar to the corresponding data of trimeters and choliambi, i.e. it is predominantly neutral, but to a certain extent also negative, imperative and conditional.

Therefore, from the viewpoint of semantics, verse metre turns out to be even more relevant than genre – choliamb and iambic trimeter are both the metres of satirical verses, but their semantic structures are very different. Thus, there is a strong conventional connection in the Ionian poetical tradition between verse metre and its semantics, and thus, verse metre has also an indexical meaning.

On the other hand, verse meter is also related to iconicity in the Ionian poetry. Hexameter, being so-to-say longer verse metre than the choliambus or iambic trimeter, marks great and important things: war, gods, sublime emotions like grief and mourning, while the thematics of iambic trimeter, which was considered the most similar verse form to the everyday speech, is more ordinary and neutral. Even more interesting is the iconicity of the choliambic poetry: this disharmonic verse is associated with themes that are also "disharmonic": invectives, threats, filthiness, and so forth – such themes occur extremely rarely in other analysed metres. Thus, we can say that metre has here a distinctive iconical function that becomes especially evident in comparison with other archaic metres.

5. The formal analysis of the characters of Oresteia in Greek tragedy. The protagonists and the minor characters are compared, for which the rhythmical liveliness and variability of personages, the length and number of utterances, as well as the number of dialogue verses in the metrical repertoire of the corresponding personage are taken into account. The methods of this study were developed by Boris Jarcho and Marina Tarlinskaja.

The analysis of the formal features of the characters in Oresteia revealed that the data of Sophocles and Euripides are more close to each other both in the respect of general "liveliness" and the "liveliness" of characters’ utterances. Aeschylus’ lower index of "liveliness" results mainly from the abundance of lyrical parts in comparison with later authors; as a consequence, the utterances in his tragedy are longer. In the case of Aeschylus it is notable that the roles of minor characters are more "lively" (e.g, Clytaemnestra has a small, but at the same time an intense role), while in the case of Sophocles and Euripides, rhythmically, the liveliest part is that of Orestes, who is the second character in importance.

Although the material of the present research is not sufficient for the more general conclusions concerning the rhythm of characters’ utterances, comprising, e.g. their gender, social status, positive or negative traits of character, some regularities were found after all. Thus, certain differences can be observed in the metrics and rhythmics of the main and minor characters’ utterances.

These tendencies become most obvious when we compare Electra with minor characters. Namely, Electra of all the analysed tragedies has several features in common. First, her part has always the biggest proportion of lyrical speeches (in Euripides she is exceeded by Castor, but he is most probably a later supplement). As for the rhythmics, Electra’s part has more unstandard settlements, e.g., she is the only character in Aeschylus and Sophocles who has verses with a double resolution, while in Euripides, whose Electra is the most resolved character of all (not considering Castor), even a triple resolution can be found. Here it is also important to notice the indexical relationship between the rhythm and semantics: the more commonplace and less typical of tragedy the character is, the closer is its rhythmics to that of comedy. Electra has also more verses with splits than any other character. The index of liveliness of Electra is almost the same in all the authors (despite that, proportionally, it is one of the highest in Aeschylus, but quite average in Sophocles and Euripides).

Although the same tendencies in Orestes are more schematical, his metrics and rhythmics are rather similar to those of Electra. Thus, in respect of the proportion of lyrical verses, he always comes second after Electra; he also has quite many split verses.

At the same time, the parts of minor characters are usually made up entirely of iambic trimeters. The rhythmical variety of minor personages is higher than average, but there are no splits in their parts (except for Aegisthus). However, there are characters whose parts have unstandard rhythm, e.g., the pedagogue in Sophocles or Chrysothemis, who is a contrast to Electra by her nature as well as her rhythmics: the proportion of resolutions is almost four times smaller than that of Electra. The contrast with other minor characters is even bigger.

Clytaemnestra is both rhythmically and metrically an intermediate character: in Aeschylus her part consists entirely of iambic trimeters, but in Sophocles and Euripides she pronounces also a couple of lyrical verses. There are also some splits in her verses which usually do not occur in minor persons.

All in all, the results of the present study can be summarized as follows: the deep structure of iambic trimeter is realized differently in different periods and by different authors, both on the metrical and rhythmical as well as on the semantical level. The surface structures depend, first of all, on language – thus, the quantitative structure of the Greek language results in the quantitative-syllabic trimeter, while in Latin the trimeter is realized as the quantitative-syllabic-accentual senarius or trimeter. In addition, the surface structures depend also on tradition, genre, time of creation and, finally, on author’s individual rhythmical preferences.